ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF LIFE

Chemical compounds of living things are known as organic compounds because of their association with the organism. Organic compounds, which are compounds associated with life processes, is the subject of organic chemistry. Among the various types of organic compounds, four main categories were found in all living things: carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrate 

Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as an energy source. In addition, some carbohydrates into structural material. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the oxygen atom hydrogen atom ratio is 2:1.

Simple carbohydrates, often referred to as sugar, can be a monosaccharide if they consisted of a single molecule, or if they disaccharide composed of two molecules. The most important is the monosaccharide glucose, carbohydrates with molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the basic form of the fuel in living things. It is soluble and transported by body fluids to all cells, where it is metabolized to release energy. Glucose is the starting material for cell respiration, and is the main product of photosynthesis.

Three important disaccharides are also found in living things: maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Maltose is a combination of two glucose units linked covalently. Sucrose table sugar glucose formed by connecting another monosaccharide called fructose. (Figure 1 shows that in the synthesis of sucrose, a molecule produced water dehydration process is therefore called a .. reversal of this process is hydrolysis, a process in which molecules were divided and water elements are added.) Lactose is composed of units of glucose and galactose .

Complex carbohydrates known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are formed by connecting monosaccharides countless. Among the most important polysaccharides are starch, which consists of hundreds or thousands of glucose units linked to each other. Starch serves as a storage form for carbohydrates. Most of the human population of the world meet its energy needs with rice starch, wheat, corn, and potatoes.

Two other important polysaccharides are glycogen and cellulose. Glycogen is also made up of thousands of glucose units, but the units are bound in a different pattern than the starch. Glycogen is the form in which glucose is stored in the human heart. Cellulose is used primarily as structural carbohydrates. It is also composed of glucose units, but the units can not be separated from each other except for a few species of organisms. Wood is mainly composed of cellulose, such as plant cell walls. Cotton cloth and paper commercial cellulose products.


Protein


Protein, one of the most complex of all organic compounds, which are composed of amino acids (see Figure 3), which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. Certain amino acids also have atomic sulfur, phosphorus, or other elements such as iron or copper.

Many proteins are very large in size and very complex. However, all of these proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids are relatively simple. There are 20 types of amino acids. Each amino acid (see illustration left in Figure 3) has an amino (NH2-) groups, carboxyl (-COOH) group, and a group of atoms called a-R group (where R stands for a radical). Amino acids differ depending on the nature of R-groups, as shown in the middle image Figure 3. Examples of the amino acids alanine, valine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, and histidine.

Removal of water molecules linking amino acids to form proteins. This process is called dehydration synthesis, and is a byproduct of the synthesis of water. Link forged bonds between amino acids are peptides, and small proteins are called peptides.

All living things depend on protein for their existence. Proteins are the major molecules from which living things are built. Certain proteins are dissolved or suspended in a watery substance cells, while others are incorporated into a variety of cell structures. Protein is also found as a supporting and strengthening the network outside the cell. Bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and all are composed of protein.

One important use is in the construction of protein enzymes. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions that occur in a cell. They are not used in the reaction, but, they are still available to catalyze the reaction successfully.

Each species produces a protein that is unique to the species. Information for this unique synthesis of proteins located in the cell nucleus. Called genetic code determines the order of amino acids in proteins. Therefore, the genetic codes regulate chemicals that occur in cells. Protein can also serve as a backup source of energy for cells. When the amino group is removed from an amino acid, the resulting compounds are energy rich.

Nucleic acid 

Such as proteins, nucleic acids are very large molecules. Nucleic acids are made up of smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a carbohydrate molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing molecule that is due to the nature of the nitrogenous bases.


Living organisms have two nucleic acids are important. One type is deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The other is ribonucleic acid, or RNA. DNA is found primarily in the cell nucleus, whereas RNA is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm, semi-liquid substance that forms the base of the cell.

DNA and RNA differ from each other in their components. DNA containing carbohydrate deoxyribose, whereas RNA has ribose. In addition, DNA contains the base thymine, while RNA has uracil

Carbon is essential for life because of several reasons:
It can form a strong stable (typically nonpolar) covalent bonds
It can contain up to 4 chemical bonds
It can form double bonds


Organic compounds are often formed Polymers
Long chains of smaller molecules (not atoms) called monomers, bind to form large macromolecules.

Hidrokarbon aromatik

An aromatic hydrocarbon or arena (sometimes also called aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with a single bond or a double bond, and between carbon atoms. Configuration 6 carbon atoms in an aromatic compound called benzene rings. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic. Aromatic hydrocarbons, usually containing rings of carbon atoms are very stable

Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom.


reaction arena
Arena is a reactant in many organic reactions.
aromatic substitution

In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid:

     Nitration of salicylic acid
 

Nitrasi dari asam salisilat

COUPLINGS

couplings

At couplings, metal will catalyze the coupling between the two radical fragments formal. The results are usually obtained from the coupling reaction is the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds, for example alkilarena, vinyl arena, biraril, the carbon-nitrogen (aniline) or a carbon-oxygen bond new. An example is the arylation of perfluorobenzena

Hydrocarbon Derivatives

HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

Not all atomic combinations possible on paper can actually occur in nature. One of the most important jobs of the organic chemist is to synthesize compounds which have been predicted theoretically.

Many compounds that occur in nature have not been classified and analyzed. Another job of the organic chemist is to isolate and analyze natural organic substances. If the chemist can find the structure of a natural compound, he can then attempt to synthesize the material in the laboratory.

We have already seen how complex such jobs can be, even when carbon and hydrogen are the only elements with which the chemist is concerned. When atoms of other elements are introduced into hydrocarbon molecules, literally hundreds of thousands of organic compounds can be (and are) formed.

-Organic compounds are divided into two main classes: hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives
-Hydrocarbon derivatives are molecular compounds of carbon and at least one other element that is not hydrogen
-Organic halides are organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by halogen atoms
-Common organic halides include freons (chlorofluorocarbons) and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene)
-Naming halides uses the same format as branched-chain hydrocarbons
-The branch is named by shortening the halogen name to fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo-
-In drawing organic halides using IUPAC names, draw the parent chain and add branches at locations specified in the name
eg.

    Cl Cl
     | |
   H-C-C-H
     | |
     H H


1,2-dichloroethane

-Organic halides react fast which is explained from the idea that no strong covalent bond is broken – the electron rearrangement does not involve separation of the carbon atoms
-Addition of halogens could be added to alkynes which results in alkenes or alkanes
-By adding halogens to alkenes, the product could undergo another addition step, by adding halogens to the parent chain, the double bond has to become a single bond in order to accommodate the halogens
eg.

 Br Br              Br Br
  | |                | |
H-C=C-H + Br-Br => H-C-C-H
         | |
                    Br Br

-By adding hydrogen halides to unsaturated compounds will produce isomers

  H H H               H H H                    H H H
  | | |               | | |                    | | |
H-C=C-C-H + H-Cl => H-C-C-C-H       OR       H-C-C-C-H  
      |               | | |                    | | |
      H              Cl H H                    HCl H

-Substitution reaction is a reaction that involves the breaking of a carbon-hydrogen bond in an alkane or aromatic ring and the replacement of the hydrogen atom with another atom or group of atoms
-With light energy it enables the substitution reaction to move at a noticeable rate eg. C₃H₈ + BR₂ + light => C₃H₇Br + HBR
-Through substitution reaction, in order to name the reaction product, just indicate the location number of the replacement, followed by the halogen prefix (eg. Bromo-) and then state the type of parent chain. Also indicate the second product created from substitution reaction (hydrogen bromide) eg. propane + bromine => 1-bromopropane + hydrogen bromide
-Elimination is an organic reaction in which an alkyl halide reacts with hydroxide ion to produce an alkene by removing a hydrogen and halide ion from the molecule

  H H H             H H H
  | | |             | | | 
H-C-C-C-H + OH => H-C=C-C-H + H-O + Br
  | | |                 |       |
  H BrH                 H       H

-Alcohols have properties that can be explained by the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain

-Short-chain alcohols are very soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water molecules

-Alcohols are used as solvents in organic reactions because they are effective for both polar and non-polar compounds

-To name alcohols, the –e is dropped from the end of the alkane name and is replaced with –ol eg. Methane => methanol

-Methanol is also called wood alcohol because it was once made by heating wood shavings in the absence of air

-These days, methanol is prepared by combining carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high temperatures and pressure with the use of a catalyst

-Methanol, however, is poisonous to humans. Consuming a small amount could cause blindness or death

-When naming alcohols with more than two carbon atoms, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated

-Alcohols that contain more than one hydroxyl group are called polyalcohols, their names indicate the positions of the hydroxyl groups eg. 1,2-ethanediol

-Alcohols undergo elimination reactions to produce alkenes through being catalyzed by concentrated sulfuric acid, which removes or eliminates a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group

  H H                  H H 
  | |                  | |
H-C-C-H  + acid  =>  H-C=C-H   +   H-O
  | |                                |
  H OH                               H


ethanol + acid => ethene   + water

-Ethers is a family of organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom bonded between two hydrocarbon groups, and have the general formula R₁-O-R₂

-To name ethers add oxy to the prefix for the smaller hydrocarbon group and join it to the alkane name of the larger hydrocarbon group

eg.

CH3-O-C2H5  


methoxyethane

-Ethers have low solubility in water, low boiling points, and have no evidence of hydrogen bonding

-Ethers undergo chemical change only when treated with powerful reagents under vigorous conditions

-Ethers are formed by the condensation reaction of alcohols

-Condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, usually water

-The carbonyl functional group, -CO-, consists of a carbon atom with a double covalent bond to an oxygen atom

-Aldehydes has the carbonyl group on the terminal carbon atom of a chain

-To name aldehydes, replace the final –e of the name of the corresponding alkane with the suffix –al

-Small aldehyde molecules have sharp, irritating odors whereas larger molecules have flowery odors and is used to make perfumes

-A ketone has the carbonyl group present anywhere in a carbon chain except at the end of the chain

-The difference in position of the carbonyl group affects the chemical reactivity, and enables us to distinguish aldehydes from ketones empirically

-To name ketones, replace the –e ending of the name of the corresponding alkane with –one

-The simplest ketone is acetone (propanone), CH₃COCH₃

-The family of organic compounds, carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group, -COOH, which includes both the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups

-Carboxylic acids are found in citrus fruits, and other foods with properties of having a sour taste

-Carboxylic acids also have distinctive odors (like sweat from a person’s feet)

-The molecules of carboxylic acids are polar and form hydrogen bonds both with each other and with water molecules

-Carboxylic acids acid properties, so a litmus test can separate these compounds from other hydrocarbon derivatives

-To name carboxylic acids, replace the –e ending of the alkane name with –oic, followed by the word “acid”

-Methanoic acid, HCOOH, is the first member of the carboxylic acid family

-Some acids contain two or three carbonyl groups such as oxalic acid, and citric acid

 
    COOH  CH2-COOH
    |   |
    COOH             HO-C-COOH
   |
   CH2-COOH

     

oxalic acid      citric acid

-When carboxylic acids undergo a condensation reaction, in which a carboxylic acid combines with another reactant, it forms two products – an organic compound and water

-Esterification is the condensation reaction in which a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol to produce ester and water

-carboxylic acid + alcohol => ester + water

-The ester functional group is similar to that of an acid, except that the hydrogen atom of the carboxyl group is replaced by a hydrocarbon branch

-Esters are responsible for the odors of fruits and flowers and are also added to foods for aroma and taste

-To name an ester, determine name of the alkyl group from the alcohol used in the esterification reaction

-Next change the ending of the acid name from “–oic acid” to “–oate”

-ethanoic acid + methanol => methyl ethanoate + water

-Artificial flavorings are made by mixing synthetic esters to give similar odors of the natural substance

-An amide consists of a carboxyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom

-Amides could be formed in condensation reactions

-Amides occur in proteins, the large molecules found in all living organisms

-Peptide bonds is the joining of amino acids together in proteins

-To name amides, have the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final –e replaced by the suffix –amide

-Change the suffix of the carboxylic acid from “–oic acid” to –amide to have the same name results eg. ethanamide

-Amines consist of one or more hydrocarbon groups bonded to a nitrogen atom

-Through X-Ray diffraction reveals that the amine functional group is a nitrogen atom bonded by single covalent bonds to one, two, or three carbon atoms

-Amines are polar substances that re extremely soluble in water as they form strong hydrogen bonds both to each other and to water

-Amines have peculiar, horrible odors (eg. smell of rotting fish)

-The name of amines include the names of the alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom, followed by the suffix –amine eg. methylamine

-Amines with one, two, or three hydrocarbon groups attached to the central nitrogen atom are referred to as primary, secondary, and tertiary

-Primary amines is when a hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen atom is replaced by a hydrocarbon group

-Secondary amines are when two hydrocarbon groups replaces the hydrogen atoms and tertiary amines replaces all of the hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups

-Amines are used in the synthesis of medicines

-A group of amines found in many plants are called alkaloids

-Many alkaloids influence the function of the central nervous systems of animals

-Substitution – alkane/aromatic + halogen + light => organic halide + hydrogen halide

-Elimination – alkyl halide + OH => alkene + water |+ water + halide ion

-Elimination – alcohol + acid => alkene + water

PETROLEUM

An introduction to Petroleum

Petroleum, along with oil and coal, is classified as a fossil fuel. Fossil fuels are formed when sea plants and animals die, and the remains become buried under several thousand feet of silt, sand or mud. Fossil fuels take millions of years to form and therefore petroleum is also considered to be a non-renewable energy source.

Petroleum is formed by hydrocarbons (a hydrocarbon is a compound made up of carbon and hydrogen) with the addition of certain other substances, primarily sulphur. Petroleum in its natural form when first collected is usually named crude oil, and can be clear, green or black and may be either thin like gasoline or thick like tar.

There are several major oil producing regions around the globe. The Kuwait and Saudi Arabia's crude oil fields are the largest, although Middle East oil from other countries in the region such as Iran and Iraq also make up a significant part of world production figures.

The North Sea crude oil fields are still fairly full, and are arguably the second most influential oil field in economic terms. Texas, once the world's major oil region, is now almost completely dry.

In 1859 Edwin Drake sank the first known oil well, this was in Pennsylvania. Since this time oil and petroleum production figure grew exponentially.

Originally the primary use of petroleum was as a lighting fuel, once it had been distilled and turned into kerosene. When Edison opened the world's first electricity generating plant in 1882 the demand for kerosene began to drop.

However, by this time Henry Ford had shown the world that the automobile would be the best form of transport for decades to come, and gasoline began to be a product in high demand.

World War I was the real catalyst for petroleum production, with more petroleum being produced throughout the war than had ever been produced previously. In modern times petroleum is viewed as a valuable commodity, traded around the world in the same way as gold and diamonds.

Most people tend to believe that petroleum is mostly used to power internal combustion engines in the form of gasoline or petrol. Although our autombiles and other forms of transport do consume the highest quantity of petroleum it is used for a vast array of applications.

In its thickest form, the almost black petroleum is named bitumen, this is used for paving road, forming the blacktop, it is also an excellent water repellent and is used in roofing.

Petroleum is also a major part of the chemical makeup of many plastics and synthetics. Possibly the most startling usage of petroleum for many people is its appearance in foodstuffs such as beer and in medications such as aspirin.

The world has a limited supply of petroleum, and current estimations tell us that within the next few decades mankind will have completely depleted this valuable natural resource. Although measures have been taken to ensure that there are cheap, renewable fuel options in place for the eventuality it is still obvious that mankind faces a serious problem when petroleum supplies finally run out.

Another crucial point with petroleum, is the price it plays with regards to travel costs. Most travel companies whose main line of business concentrates on cheap travel and cheap holidays could be threatened in the future if petroleum supplies are completed depleted.

The future is not as bleak as it may sound though, many companies are already preparing themselves for the widespread usage of biofuels, which experts are prediciting are less than 10 years away from main stream use. It is interesting to note that from the wikipedia page which explains about biofuel, is that it is a renewable source of fuel, so it would be impossible to ever run out of biofuels.

TASK, TUESDAY, 25 SEPTEMBER 2012

1. why are  ripens fruit result etilent gas?

Answer : Banana and fruit type, the process proceeds chemically mature naturally. Carbohydrates in the womb flesh turned into glucose, which create a sense of sweet and tender. 

The process produces Ethylene Gas. Gas is creeping from one to another molecule to make its surroundings so well cooked. This is the basis to give Calcium carbide (Calcium Carbide), is used to assist the process of maturation. Calcium carbide, carbide we call it, when hit the water or moisture will produce Asetilin Gas. This gas in its chemical structure similar to natural Ethylene. Because this is filled with gas Asetilin, the fruit will ripen simultaneously ferment. Yes, if less ripe fruit will not as sweet as a ripe, because the content Carbohydrates - Starch substances is still lacking. Gas asetilin because light will fly and mixed with air.

  because the fruits which contain ethylene gas is natural gas, which was conceived young fruits or young. chemical structure of ethylene = acetylene gas.

 on, old fruit ethylene gas concentrations increase, in order to accelerate the ripening of fruit ...

Fruit ripening process naturally results in some natural gases like water vapor, CO2 and acetylene (carbide gas = C2H2).

Chemically into storage if the fruit is also added carbide it will spur the production of acetylene from the fruit ripening process will mean faster. Carbide (CaC2) if in the open air will react with water vapor in the air (H2O) bit by bit to produce acetylene (C2H2).

 So that makes fruit ripe hormone called ethylene gas (carbide = a trade name). Actually plants naturally produce this hormone is for fruit to ripen. However, the carbide pedagan add more fruit than normal levels for fruit to mature faster.

Use of this carbide does not cause negative impacts. Levels of vitamins and minerals do not change because the use of this carbide. This is because the carbide is a chemical that stimulates only pembntukan ethylene gas which stimulates the ripening process of fruit. In addition, no significant negative impacts to the health of consumers.

2. Why do carbon afford to form duplicate bonting 1,2,3

Answer : Carbon chains may be either a single bond, double bond, or a triple bond. Forms of carbon chains themselves are very varied, there is a straight (unbranched), there is a branching, there are open, and there is a closed (circular). Various forms of carbon chains presented in the figure below. Why carbon can form so many compounds, with very varied types? Why is this not happening in the adjacent element or elements are classified with the carbon in the periodic table? BC has the electron configuration of atoms 2 4. The four valence electrons distributed on the four C atoms in a symmetrical position.  The carbon atom has four valence electrons with the atomic radii price the smallest of the atomic radius of other elements in the group IVA. It facilitates the C atom to form covalent bonds with other atoms, especially with atomic H, O, N, and halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, and I). Covalent bonds are formed to meet the octet rule. The carbon atom can form up to four covalent bonds. Covalent bond formed by atoms C is more powerful than other covalent bonds, so that the carbon compounds are stable.

         The position of carbon atoms in the periodic table in the middle so it has a moderate electronegativity value (2.5). This trait causes the carbon atoms can bind atoms having electronegativity greater or even smaller. The carbon atom can have a positive oxidation state (+2, +4), negative (-2, -4), or even zero.