MID TEST ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I, 13 NOVEMBER 2012

1. a.  explain how the concept of organic compounds from petroleum can be used for vehicles such as car, motor bike, including aircraft
b. explain it how the idea of chemical compounds from petroleumcan be used to make clothing and plastic and material needs of other human lives
Answer : 

a. Organic compounds from petroleum can be used for vehicles such as cars, motorcycles, including aircraft

Petroleum, along with oil and coal, are classified as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are formed when sea plants and animals die, and still be buried under several thousand feet of mud, sand or mud. Fossil fuels take millions of years to form oil and therefore is also considered a non-renewable energy sources.

Formed by the hydrocarbon oil (hydrocarbon is a compound composed of carbon and hydrogen) with the addition of certain other substances, especially sulfur. The oil in its natural form when first collected usually called crude oil, and can be clear, green or black and can be as thin or thick as tar gasoline.

Crude oil or commonly called crude oil is viscous black liquid and smelled dreadful, which in addition to containing impurities, it also contains minerals that dissolve in water.

These oils can not be used for fuel or other necessities, but must go through processing first. Crude oil contains about 500 types of hydrocarbons with the number of carbon atoms 1-50. In principle, petroleum processing is done in two steps, namely desalting and distillation.

A. Desalting

Desalting process is a process of salt removal is done by mixing oil with water, the goal is to dissolve the mineral substances that dissolve in water. In this process also added acids and bases in order to eliminate compounds other than hydrocarbons. After going through the desalting process, then the next oil will undergo the process of distillation.

B. Distillation

Crude oil that has gone through the process of desalting then processed further by distillation rise, which means the separation of a mixture based on differences in boiling point. Fractions obtained from the distillation process is stratified hydrocarbon mixture boiling on the interval (range) a certain temperature.

Parliamentary faction obtained after the distillation process further processed further by the reforming, polymerization, treating, and blending.

1. Reforming Reforming is a way of changing forms, from straight to branched chain. This process is used to improve the quality of gasoline.

2. Polymerization Polymerization is a way of merging monomer (molekulmolekul simple) molecules become more complex.

3. Treating Treating is the process of removal of dirt on petroleum.

4. Blending Blending is the process of adding additives.

b. Of hydrocarbon material that can be used for clothing is PTA (purified terephthalic acid), which is made of para-xylene in which the material is essentially kerosene (kerosene). Of kerosene is all the material formed into compound Aromat, the para-xylene. Chemical formula you know? The form compounds benzene (C6H6), but there are two methyl groups at C1 and C3 atoms of the benzene molecule.

Para-xylene is then oxidized using air into the PTA (see map above petrochemical processes). PTA shaped like detergent powder is then reacted with methanol into polyester fibers. Fiber poly ester which is the synthetic yarn that looks like a thread. Almost all uniforms brothers use may be made of polyester. To facilitate their identification can be seen from the price. Price clothing made ​​of synthetic polyester yarns are usually relatively cheaper than clothing made from raw cotton, silk or other natural fibers.

Subtlety material made from polyester fibers affected by additive substances (additives) in the process of making yarn (PTA when reacting with methanol). One PTA producers in Indonesia is Pertamina Processing Unit III with the product type and designation here.

Materials everyday life are derived from hydrocarbons in general the form of plastic. Plastic base material similar to LPG, which is a polymer of propylene, are compounds olefin / alkenes of carbon chains C3. Plastic pipes are much diguakan today is PVC (polyvinyl Clorida) and PE (polythene or called polyethylene). Both dihasilkanj synthetically in the industry. Both PVC and PE resistant to heat and not easy to crack because the units constituent molecules strongly intertwined. Of plastic material is then finished an assortment of products ranging from roofs (plastic tiles), furniture, interior equipment, bumper cars, tables, chairs, dishes, etc..

2. Explain why the hydrocarbons that are asymmetrical or chiral have a variety of benefit for human being, and describe how does it the chiral can be formed

Answer : Amino acids in the form of ions is called zwitter ion is amphoteric(can be acid or alkaline). All amino acids except glycine, have an asymmetric C atom or chiral C atom, the C atom that binds to fourdifferent groups (group-H,-COOH,-NH2, and-R). Therefore, all the amino acids (except glycine) are optically active. That is, the compound can rotate the plane of polarization of light.
When chiral molecules (molecules that have a plane of symmetry)reflected, reflection can get just by turning the initial molecule andproduce two identical moleculesBecause he was able to bind to four different atoms bonded, because the atoms are bonded differences that can be dragged other atoms until she has many benefits for humans.

3. When ethylene gas produced from a ripe fruit can be used to ripe other fruits that are still unripe. How do you idea when the gas is used as fuel gas like methane gas

Answer : Ethylene is a plant hormone first in the form of gas. If the fruit is ripe oranges combined with bananas, ripe bananas are faster because oranges emit ethylene gas.

Ethylene is a plant and cause more rapid maturation in many fruits, including bananas. Ethylene formation requires O2 and is inhibited by CO2. All parts of the plant can produce ethylene gas angiosperms. Formation mainly occurs in roots, shoot apical meristem, mode, fall flowers and ripe fruit.

Ethylene gas has an influence on growth and development, including the following.1) Ripening fruit. The traders often store the fruit in containers gassed with CO2 at the time of delivery so that the fruit longer to mature and ripen after destination. Sometimes merchants brood ripe fruit with fresh fruit that mature quickly.2) Gas ethylene inhibits flowering in many plants. However, in some plant species, ethylene stimulates flowering. For example, the mango trees and pineapples.3) Stimulate abscission (defoliation).4) Joint gibberellin determine the expression of the genital organs of plants, such as the cucumber.

What is Calcium Carbide (Carbide)?Calcium carbide or carbide is a chemical compound with chemical formula CaC2. Carbide is used in carbide welding process and also to accelerate the maturation of the fruit.Equation for Calcium Carbide with water isCaC2 + 2 H2O → C2H2 + Ca (OH) 2

4. Aromatic compounds are marked by ease of adjacent electrons conjugated. Please explain why an unsaturated compound which highly conjugated but is not aromatic

Answer : In order to be aromatic, all pi electrons must be paired, so it is possible overlapping (overlapping) optimal resulting in delocalization perfect. If siklooktatetraena flat and has a system similar to pi pi system of benzene, the orbital π1, π2, and π3 will be filled with six pi electrons pi.Dua remaining electrons will each occupy degenerate orbitals and π5 π4 (Hund's rule). Then not all the pi electrons will pair up and will not overlap maksimal.Jadi sikooktatetraena will not be aromatic.

ORGANIC ACIDS

Organic acids are organic compounds that have a degree of acidity (English: acidic properties). The most common organic acids are the alkanoic acid having acidity with carboxyl-COOH, and sulfonic acid group-SO2OH the acidity has a relatively stronger. Stability is very important to the acid groups and determine the degree of acidity an organic compound. 

In biology, there is an acidic group with low acidity, such as the-OH,-SH, enol group, phenol group. Bio-organic compounds such groups are not classified as organic acids. Examples of these compounds include: lactic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, citric acid and oxalic acid. 

Acetic acid, ethanoic acid or acetic acid is an organic acid chemical compounds known as sour flavoring and aroma in food. Acetic acid has the empirical formula C2H4O2. This formula is often written in the form of CH3-COOH, CH3COOH, or CH3CO2H. Pure acetic acid (called glacial acetic acid) is a colorless hygroscopic liquid, and has a freezing point of 16.7 ° C. 

Acetic acid is one of the simplest carboxylic acids, as formic acid. Solution of acetic acid in water is a weak acid, meaning that only partially dissociate into H and CH3COO-ions. Acetic acid is a chemical reagent and industrial raw materials is important. Acetic acid is used in the production of polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate, cellulose acetate and polyvinyl acetate, as well as a wide range of fibers and fabrics. In the food industry, acetic acid is used as an acidity regulator. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used as a water softener. Within a year, world demand for acetic acid to 6.5 million tons per year. 1.5 million tons per year generated from the recycling, the remainder derived from the petrochemical industry as well as from biological sources.

Vinegar (Acetic Acid)
Acetic acid, ethanoic acid or acetic acid is an organic acid chemical compounds known as sour flavoring and aroma in food. Acetic acid has the empirical formula C2H4O2. This formula is often written in the form of CH3-COOH, CH3COOH, or CH3CO2H. Pure acetic acid (called glacial acetic acid) is a colorless hygroscopic liquid, and has a freezing point of 16.7 ° C.
Acetic acid is one of the simplest carboxylic acids, as formic acid. Solution of acetic acid in water is a weak acid, meaning that only partially dissociate into H + and CH3COO-. Acetic acid is a chemical reagent and industrial raw materials is important. Acetic acid is used in the production of polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate, cellulose acetate and polyvinyl acetate, as well as a wide range of fibers and fabrics. In the food industry, acetic acid is used as an acidity regulator. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used as a water softener. Within a year, world demand for acetic acid to 6.5 million tons per year. 1.5 million tons per year generated from the recycling, the remainder derived from the petrochemical industry as well as from biological sources.
Naming
Acetic acid is a trivial name or trade name of this compound, and is the name most recommended by IUPAC. The name is derived from the Latin word acetum, meaning vinegar. Systematic name of this compound is ethanoic acid. Glacial acetic acid is a trivial name that refers to acetic acid which is not mixed with water. So called because water-free acetic acid forms crystals resemble ice at 16.7 ° C, slightly below room temperature.
The most commonly used abbreviations and acronyms merupakat official for acetic acid is AcOH or HOAc where Ac means an acetyl group, CH3-C (= O) -. In the context of acid-base, acetic acid is often abbreviated HAC, though many feel that the abbreviation is not true. Ac also not be confused with the symbol of the element actinium (Ac).
History
Vinegar has been known to humans since ancient times. Vinegar is produced by a variety of bacteria producing acetic acid, and acetic acid is a byproduct of the manufacture of beer or wine.
The use of acetic acid as chemical reagent has also been started long ago. In abat to-3 BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Theophrastus explains that vinegar reacts with metals to form various dyes, such as white lead (lead carbonate) and verdigris, which is a green substance mixture of salts containing copper and copper ( II) acetate. The Romans produced sapa, a very sweet syrup, by boiling the wine is sour. Sapa contain lead acetate, a sweet substance also called sugar of lead and sugar of Saturn. Finally, it continues to poisoning with lead by Roman officials.
In the 8th century, Persian scientist Jabir ibn Hayyan produce concentrated acetic acid from vinegar through distillation. During the Renaissance, glacial acetic acid produced from the dry distillation of metal acetates. In the 16th century German alchemist Andreas Libavius ​​explain the procedure, and compared the glacial acetic acid produced the vinegar. Apparently glacial acetic acid has many different properties with a solution of acetic acid in water, and many experts believe that chemicals were two different substances. French chemist Pierre athlete finally prove that the two substances are essentially the same.
In 1847 the German chemist Hermann Kolbe synthesized acetic acid from inorganic substances for the first time. Chemical reactions do is chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride, followed by pyrolysis into tetrakloroetilena and chlorination to trichloroacetic acid in water, and finally through the electrolytic reduction to acetic acid.
Since 1910 most of the acetic acid produced from piroligneous liquid obtained from the distillation of wood. These fluids reacted with calcium hydroxide producing calcium acetate and then acidified with sulfuric acid produces acetic acid.


Frozen crystals of acetic acid
Chemical properties
Acidity
Hydrogen atoms (H) in the carboxyl group (-COOH) in carboxylic acids such as acetic acid can be released as H + ions (protons), thus giving the acid. Acetic acid is a weak monoprotic acid with a value of pKa = 4.8. Conjugate base is acetate (CH3COO-). A 1.0 M solution of acetic acid (approximately equal to the concentration in the vinegar) has a pH of approximately 2.4.

Cyclic dimer
The crystal structure of acetic acid shows that acetic acid molecules form a dimer pairs are linked by hydrogen bonds. Dimers can also be detected in the steam temperature of 120 ° C. Dimers also occur in an aqueous solution in a solvent non-hydrogen-bonded, and sometimes on pure acetic acid. Dimer tampered with the solvent hydrogen bond (eg water). Dimer dissociation enthalpy is estimated 65.0-66.0 kJ / mol, the entropy of dissociation of about 154-157 J mol-1 K-1. [5] The nature of dimerization is also shared by other simple carboxylic acids.
As the solvent
Acetic acid solvent protic liquid is hydrophilic (polar), much like water and ethanol. Acetic acid has a dielectric constant of the medium is 6.2, so that it can dissolve both polar compounds and inorganic salts are like sugar and non-polar compounds such as oils and elements such as sulfur and iodine. Acetic acid bercambur easily with polar or nonpolar solvents such as water, chloroform and hexane. Solubility properties and ease of mixing of acetic acid makes it widely used in the chemical industry.
Chemical reactions
Acetic acid is corrosive to many metals such as iron, magnesium, and zinc, forming hydrogen gas and acetate salts (called metal acetate). Metal acetates can also be obtained by reaction of acetic acid with a suitable base. Famous example is the reaction of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) reacts with vinegar. Hapir all acetate salts dissolve well in water. One exception is chromium (II) acetate. Examples acetate salt formation reactions:
Mg (s) + 2 CH3COOH (aq) → (CH3COO) 2mg (aq) + H2 (g)
NaHCO3 (s) + CH3COOH (aq) → CH3COONa (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Aluminum is a metal that is resistant to corrosion because it forms a layer that protects the aluminum oxide surface. Therefore, acetic acid usually transported with aluminum tanks.
Acetic acid undergo reactions of carboxylic acids, such as acetic acid to produce a salt when react with alkali, producing metal ethanoate when reacting with metals, and produce metal ethanoate, water and carbon dioxide when it reacts with carbonate or bicarbonate salt. The most well-known organic reactions of acetic acid is the formation of ethanol by reduction, the formation of carboxylic acid derivatives such as acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride via nucleophilic substitution. Acetic anhydride is formed through condensation two molecules of acetic acid. Esters of acetic acid can be obtained via Fischer esterification, and also the formation of amides. At a temperature of 440 ° C, acetic acid decomposes into methane and carbon dioxide, or ketene and water.
Detection
Acetic acid can be identified by a distinctive smell. In addition, salts of acetic acid reacts with a solution of iron (III) chloride, which produces a solid red color is lost when the solution is acidified. Acetate salts when heated with arsenic trioxide (AsO3) form kakodil oxide (AsO3) form kakodil oxide ((CH3) 2AS-O-As (CH3) 2), which is easily recognizable with an unpleasant smell.
Acetic acid is produced synthetically or naturally through bacterial fermentation. Now only 10% of the production of acetic acid produced through the natural path, but most of the laws governing the acetic acid found in vinegar should come from biological processes. Of acetic acid produced by the chemical industry, 75% of which is produced by methanol carbonylation. The rest is generated through alternative methods.
Total world production of acetic acid was estimated at 5 Mt / a (million tonnes per year), half of which is produced in the United States. Europe produces about 1 Mt / a and continued to decline, while Japan produced about 0.7 Mt / a. 1:51 Mt / a is produced through recycling, so the total market acetic acid reaches Mt 6:51 / a.Perusahan largest producer of acetic acid are Celanese and BP Chemicals. Other manufacturers are Millennium Chemicals, Sterling Chemicals, Samsung, Eastman, and Svensk Etanolkemi.
Acetic Acid Biosynthesis
Acetic acid is a product of the catabolism of aerobic glycolysis pathway or glucose reshuffle. Pyruvic acid as a product of oxidation of glucose oxidized by NAD + terion then immediately bound by Coenzyme-A. In prokaryotes, this process occurs in the cytoplasm while in eukaryotes takes place in the mitochondria.

Production
1. Carbonylation of methanol
Most pure acetic acid produced by carbonylation. In this reaction, methanol and carbon monoxide react to produce acetic acid
CH3OH + CO → CH3COOH

The process involves iodomethane as an intermediate, in which the reaction itself occurs in three stages with metal complex catalysts in the second stage.
(1) CH3OH + HI → CH3I + H2O
(2) CH3I + CO → CH3COI
(3) CH3COI + H2O → CH3COOH + HI

If the above reaction conditions arranged in such a way, the process can also be produced as a by-product of acetic anhydride. Methanol carbonylation long been the most promising methods in the production of acetic acid because both methanol and carbon monoxide are commodity raw materials. Henry Dreyfus developing embryo carbonylation of methanol plant at the company Celanese in 1925. [9] However, the lack of practical materials that can be filled with corrosive materials from the reaction at the required pressure of 200 atm cause the method was abandoned for commercial purposes. It was not until 1963 that the first commercial plant using methanol carbonylation was founded by German chemical company, BASF catalysts cobalt (Co). In 1968, it was discovered Rhodium catalyst complexes, cis-[Rh (CO) 2I2] - which can operate optimally at low pressure without byproducts. The first plant using the catalyst was the U.S. chemical company Monsanto in 1970, and Rhodium berkatalis methanol carbonylation method called Monsanto process and a method of production of acetic acid the most dominant. At the end 1990'an, British Petroleum petrochemical companies commercialize Cativa catalyst ([Ir (CO) 2I2] -) which is supported by the ruthenium. Iridium-based process is more efficient and more "green" than the previous method [10], so in lieu of Monsanto.

2. Oxidation of acetaldehyde
Prior to the commercialization of Monsanto process, most acetic acid produced by oxidation of acetaldehyde. Now the oxidation of acetaldehyde is a method of acetic acid production the second most important, though not competitive when compared to the carbonylation of methanol. Acetaldehyde is produced through the oxidation used butane or light naphtha, or the hydration of ethylene. When butene or light naphtha is heated with air along with several metal ions, including manganese ions, cobalt and chromium, peroxides are formed which then decomposes to acetic acid according to the equation below.
2 C4H10 + 5 O2 → 4 CH3COOH + 2 H2O

Generally, the reaction is run at a temperature and pressure such that the temperature reached as high as possible namut still liquid butane. Reaction conditions are generally about 150 ° C and 55 atm. Byproducts such as butanone, ethyl acetate, formic acid and propionic acid may also be formed. Products also commercially valuable, and if desired reaction conditions can be modified to produce more by-products, but the separation of acetic acid as an obstacle to cost more.

Through the same conditions and catalyst of acetaldehyde can be oxidized by oxygen in the air produces acetic acid.
2 CH3CHO + O2 → 2 CH3COOH

Using modern catalysts, this reaction can have a yield ratio (yield) is greater than 95%. The main byproducts are ethyl acetate, formic acid and formaldehyde, all of which have lower boiling points than acetic acid so that it can be separated easily by distilas

Use
Acetic acid is used as a chemical reagent to produce a variety of chemical compounds. The majority (40-45%) of acetic acid is used as a material world for the production of vinyl acetate monomer (vinyl acetate monomer, VAM). Addition of acetic acid is also used in the production of acetic anhydride and ester. The use of acetic acid, including the use of the relatively small vinegar.

LIPIDS

The lipids are a large and diverse group of naturally occurring organic compounds that are related by their solubility in nonpolar organic solvents (e.g. ether, chloroform, acetone & benzene) and general insolubility in water. There is great structural variety among the lipids, as will be demonstrated in the following sections. You may click on a topic listed below, or proceed page by page.

Lipids including fatty acids (that make up fats and oils), steroids (including cholesterol), phospholipids, and night. One of the functions of lipids in the body is to serve as an energy reserve, while the other serves as a component of the cell structure. However, other lipids act as
hormones and signaling molecules. Thus, the role lipids play in the human body depends on the structure and chemical composition.

Energy storage
Although the human body is easier and more efficient energy derived from carbohydrates, fats provide more energy per gram of potential, allowing for greater storage capacity. Lipids are stored in adipose tissue, which humans like to refer to as "fat". Adipose tissue also serves as a protective cushion for the organ, and a layer of insulation against heat loss.

When lipids are ingested, they are metabolized in the intestine into chylomicrons. This protein-lipid molecules are transported into the cell by other lipoproteins for use or storage, depending on the needs of the body. Liver regulate lipid concentrations in the blood, the excess lead levels in adipose tissue deposition. Lipids stored as triglycerides, which are chemically composed of three fatty acid chains. The process of metabolism, destruction, and recycling are presented in this tutorial with the University of Vermont.

Transportation
Lipids are involved in the transport of other lipoprotein lipids, best known as LDL, HDL, and VLDL. This lipid molecule protein cholesterol, which may be most famously known in relation to the level of LDL ("bad cholesterol") and triglycerides in the blood as a risk factor for heart disease. The lipoprotein named based on how compact they are - low density (LDL), high density (HDL), and very low density (VLDL). To overcome the accumulation of other lipoproteins, HDL acts like a sponge, absorbing excess lipids and cholesterol in physiological processes.

The cell structure

Phospholipid bilayer to form cell membranes, making them essential to human life, mammals, and even eukaryotic. This tutorial from Davidson College shows the structure of the plasma membrane in detail. Chemical characteristics of phospholipids allows them to create a semi-permeable membrane that allows only certain molecules through to the inside of the cell. This rule applies even to water, allow for compartmentalization of cells and controls their transport across membranes.

Research has even found that the lipids in the cell membrane serves an important function in cell signaling and enzyme activity in cellular processes. A new path of inquiry lipid rafts - membrane lipids concentrated area that appears to play an important role in the regulation of genes and other cell signaling events.

Sex hormones and vitamins
Cholesterol is a steroid and serves as a precursor for androgen - better known as sex hormones, and vitamin D and cortisol, a stress hormone. According to the University of California, only about 15 percent of the cholesterol in the human body is swallowed. Rensselaer Polytechnic offers a visual representation of the full chemical pathway for the synthesis of cholesterol.

Lipids in the brain
Membranes of the brain and nervous system are made of lipids. Although the brain does not have triglycerides, lipids play an important role in signal transduction and protein retention, as discussed in Basic Neurochemistry. Because of the prevalence of membranes in the nervous system, high concentrations of lipids found in the system. In recent years, research has found that many neurological disorders may actually have some basis in lipid imbalance. As the understanding of the physiological process involving the increase of lipids, their importance more clearly in the human body becomes.

PROTEIN

Proteins are macromolecules making up the bulk of the body. Protein has a very important role in the function and structure of all living cells. This is because the protein molecule contains oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and sulfur. Some proteins also contain phosphorus.

The benefits of protein for our body are numerous. Protein greatly affect the growth process of our body. Among the benefits of these proteins are as follows:
As the enzyme. The protein has a major role to speed up biological reactions.
As a means of transport and storage.
For Supporting mechanical. One form of protein fibers called collagen has a function to keep the strength and durability of bone and skin.
Defense Sebagau body or the body of Defense immunization. These proteins are commonly used in the form of antibodies.
As media propagation of nerve impulses.
As a growth control

And on the topic we will discuss about the transporter protein to accelerate biological reactions. Protein in hemoglobin to transport oxygen in the erythrocytes. The protein contained in myoglobin can transport oxygen in the muscles.

Hemoglobin is the iron-containing oxygen in the hemoglobin of red blood cells in the blood that carries oxygen from the respiratory organs (lungs) to the body (ie the tissues) where it releases the oxygen to burn nutrients to provide energy for the functioning of the organism, and collect the resulting carbon dioxide to bring it back to the respiratory organs to be dispensed from the organism.

In mammals, the protein makes up about 97% of the dry content of red blood cells', and about 35% of the total content (including water). Hemoglobin oxygen binding capacity 1.34 ml O2 per gram of hemoglobin, which increases the total blood oxygen capacity seventy-fold compared with the dissolved oxygen in the blood. Mammalian hemoglobin molecule can bind (carry) up to four oxygen molecules.

Hemoglobin is involved in the transport of other gases: it carries some body breathing carbon dioxide (about 10% of the total) as carbaminohemoglobin, in which CO2 is bound to the protein globin. This molecule also carries nitric oxide molecules important regulatory protein globin bound to the thiol group, releasing it at the same time with oxygen.

Hemoglobin is also found outside red blood cells and their progenitor lines. Other cells that contain hemoglobin include the A9 dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, macrophages, alveolar cells, and mesangial cells in the kidney. In the network, the function of hemoglobin has non-oxygen-carrying as an antioxidant and regulator of iron metabolism

Hemoglobin and hemoglobin-like molecules are also found in many invertebrates, fungi, and plants. In organisms, hemoglobin can carry oxygen, or they can act to transport and regulate other things such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfide. A variant of the molecule, called leghemoglobin, is used to scavenge the oxygen away from the anaerobic system, such as nitrogen nodules of leguminous plants, before the oxygen can be toxic to the system.

Myoglobin (abbreviated Mb) is a single-chain protein is round 153 or 154 amino acids, containing a heme (iron-containing porphyrin) prosthetic group in the center around which folds Apoprotein left. It has eight alpha helical hydrophobic core. It has a molecular weight of 17,699 dalton (with heme), and is the primary oxygen-carrying pigment of muscle tissue contrast to blood-borne hemoglobin., Which are structurally related to, this protein does not show cooperative binding of oxygen, since positive cooperativity belongs multimeric protein / oligomer only. A high concentration of myoglobin in muscle cells allow organisms to hold their breath again. Diving mammals such as whales and seals have muscles with very high abundance of myoglobin.
Myoglobin was the first protein to have a three-dimensional structure revealed In 1958, John Kendrew and colleagues successfully determined the structure of myoglobin by high-resolution X-ray crystallography .. For this discovery, John Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz Despite being one of the most studied proteins in biology, the true physiological function has yet to convince established: mice genetically engineered to lack a decent myoglobin, but showed a 30% reduction in heart. Systolic output. They are adapted to this deficiency through genetic mechanisms of hypoxia and increased vasodilation. In human myoglobin encoded by MB

Ceruloplasmin

Ceruloplasmin is a copper enzyme with a substance that serves as a catalyst in organic reactions

4 Fe2 + + 4 H + + O2 <=> 4 Fe3 + + 2 H2O

Ceruloplasmin enzyme activity has ferrioxidase that converts iron iron in the form of cells and in the form of a store with transferrin and ultimately used by the bone marrow to the manufacturing process of erythrocytes. Ceruloplasmin is the main form of the copper minerals are present in the circulation of the blood (plasma). Forms of Cu in the body bind to a complex protein that is 90% globulin bound in the form of ceruloplasmin and 10% by albumin. Ceruloplasmin have activity as an enzyme capable of converting ferroksidase ferrous iron in the form of the cells and in the form of a store with transferring and ultimately used by the bone marrow to the process of making erythrocytes (erytropoiesis). Ceruloplasmin is α-2-globulin. This protein is blue because it contains copper and carry 90% of the copper present in the plasma. Myoglobin myoglobin is a protein that is a constituent of the blood that binds oxygen. Suitable as a carrier protein myoglobin oxygen, but it is effective as an oxygen storage protein. Myoglobin in red muscle tissue that binds oxygen in the protein Myoglobin is an iron-and oxygen-binding was found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is an iron-and protein-binding oxygen in the blood, especially red blood cells. The only time myoglobin is found in the bloodstream is when it is released after muscle injury. This is an abnormal finding, and diagnosis can be relevant when found in the blood

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF LIFE

Chemical compounds of living things are known as organic compounds because of their association with the organism. Organic compounds, which are compounds associated with life processes, is the subject of organic chemistry. Among the various types of organic compounds, four main categories were found in all living things: carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrate 

Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as an energy source. In addition, some carbohydrates into structural material. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the oxygen atom hydrogen atom ratio is 2:1.

Simple carbohydrates, often referred to as sugar, can be a monosaccharide if they consisted of a single molecule, or if they disaccharide composed of two molecules. The most important is the monosaccharide glucose, carbohydrates with molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the basic form of the fuel in living things. It is soluble and transported by body fluids to all cells, where it is metabolized to release energy. Glucose is the starting material for cell respiration, and is the main product of photosynthesis.

Three important disaccharides are also found in living things: maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Maltose is a combination of two glucose units linked covalently. Sucrose table sugar glucose formed by connecting another monosaccharide called fructose. (Figure 1 shows that in the synthesis of sucrose, a molecule produced water dehydration process is therefore called a .. reversal of this process is hydrolysis, a process in which molecules were divided and water elements are added.) Lactose is composed of units of glucose and galactose .

Complex carbohydrates known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are formed by connecting monosaccharides countless. Among the most important polysaccharides are starch, which consists of hundreds or thousands of glucose units linked to each other. Starch serves as a storage form for carbohydrates. Most of the human population of the world meet its energy needs with rice starch, wheat, corn, and potatoes.

Two other important polysaccharides are glycogen and cellulose. Glycogen is also made up of thousands of glucose units, but the units are bound in a different pattern than the starch. Glycogen is the form in which glucose is stored in the human heart. Cellulose is used primarily as structural carbohydrates. It is also composed of glucose units, but the units can not be separated from each other except for a few species of organisms. Wood is mainly composed of cellulose, such as plant cell walls. Cotton cloth and paper commercial cellulose products.


Protein


Protein, one of the most complex of all organic compounds, which are composed of amino acids (see Figure 3), which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. Certain amino acids also have atomic sulfur, phosphorus, or other elements such as iron or copper.

Many proteins are very large in size and very complex. However, all of these proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids are relatively simple. There are 20 types of amino acids. Each amino acid (see illustration left in Figure 3) has an amino (NH2-) groups, carboxyl (-COOH) group, and a group of atoms called a-R group (where R stands for a radical). Amino acids differ depending on the nature of R-groups, as shown in the middle image Figure 3. Examples of the amino acids alanine, valine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, and histidine.

Removal of water molecules linking amino acids to form proteins. This process is called dehydration synthesis, and is a byproduct of the synthesis of water. Link forged bonds between amino acids are peptides, and small proteins are called peptides.

All living things depend on protein for their existence. Proteins are the major molecules from which living things are built. Certain proteins are dissolved or suspended in a watery substance cells, while others are incorporated into a variety of cell structures. Protein is also found as a supporting and strengthening the network outside the cell. Bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and all are composed of protein.

One important use is in the construction of protein enzymes. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions that occur in a cell. They are not used in the reaction, but, they are still available to catalyze the reaction successfully.

Each species produces a protein that is unique to the species. Information for this unique synthesis of proteins located in the cell nucleus. Called genetic code determines the order of amino acids in proteins. Therefore, the genetic codes regulate chemicals that occur in cells. Protein can also serve as a backup source of energy for cells. When the amino group is removed from an amino acid, the resulting compounds are energy rich.

Nucleic acid 

Such as proteins, nucleic acids are very large molecules. Nucleic acids are made up of smaller units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a carbohydrate molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing molecule that is due to the nature of the nitrogenous bases.


Living organisms have two nucleic acids are important. One type is deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. The other is ribonucleic acid, or RNA. DNA is found primarily in the cell nucleus, whereas RNA is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm, semi-liquid substance that forms the base of the cell.

DNA and RNA differ from each other in their components. DNA containing carbohydrate deoxyribose, whereas RNA has ribose. In addition, DNA contains the base thymine, while RNA has uracil

Carbon is essential for life because of several reasons:
It can form a strong stable (typically nonpolar) covalent bonds
It can contain up to 4 chemical bonds
It can form double bonds


Organic compounds are often formed Polymers
Long chains of smaller molecules (not atoms) called monomers, bind to form large macromolecules.

Hidrokarbon aromatik

An aromatic hydrocarbon or arena (sometimes also called aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with a single bond or a double bond, and between carbon atoms. Configuration 6 carbon atoms in an aromatic compound called benzene rings. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic. Aromatic hydrocarbons, usually containing rings of carbon atoms are very stable

Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom.


reaction arena
Arena is a reactant in many organic reactions.
aromatic substitution

In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid:

     Nitration of salicylic acid
 

Nitrasi dari asam salisilat

COUPLINGS

couplings

At couplings, metal will catalyze the coupling between the two radical fragments formal. The results are usually obtained from the coupling reaction is the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds, for example alkilarena, vinyl arena, biraril, the carbon-nitrogen (aniline) or a carbon-oxygen bond new. An example is the arylation of perfluorobenzena

Hydrocarbon Derivatives

HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

Not all atomic combinations possible on paper can actually occur in nature. One of the most important jobs of the organic chemist is to synthesize compounds which have been predicted theoretically.

Many compounds that occur in nature have not been classified and analyzed. Another job of the organic chemist is to isolate and analyze natural organic substances. If the chemist can find the structure of a natural compound, he can then attempt to synthesize the material in the laboratory.

We have already seen how complex such jobs can be, even when carbon and hydrogen are the only elements with which the chemist is concerned. When atoms of other elements are introduced into hydrocarbon molecules, literally hundreds of thousands of organic compounds can be (and are) formed.

-Organic compounds are divided into two main classes: hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives
-Hydrocarbon derivatives are molecular compounds of carbon and at least one other element that is not hydrogen
-Organic halides are organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by halogen atoms
-Common organic halides include freons (chlorofluorocarbons) and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene)
-Naming halides uses the same format as branched-chain hydrocarbons
-The branch is named by shortening the halogen name to fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo-
-In drawing organic halides using IUPAC names, draw the parent chain and add branches at locations specified in the name
eg.

    Cl Cl
     | |
   H-C-C-H
     | |
     H H


1,2-dichloroethane

-Organic halides react fast which is explained from the idea that no strong covalent bond is broken – the electron rearrangement does not involve separation of the carbon atoms
-Addition of halogens could be added to alkynes which results in alkenes or alkanes
-By adding halogens to alkenes, the product could undergo another addition step, by adding halogens to the parent chain, the double bond has to become a single bond in order to accommodate the halogens
eg.

 Br Br              Br Br
  | |                | |
H-C=C-H + Br-Br => H-C-C-H
         | |
                    Br Br

-By adding hydrogen halides to unsaturated compounds will produce isomers

  H H H               H H H                    H H H
  | | |               | | |                    | | |
H-C=C-C-H + H-Cl => H-C-C-C-H       OR       H-C-C-C-H  
      |               | | |                    | | |
      H              Cl H H                    HCl H

-Substitution reaction is a reaction that involves the breaking of a carbon-hydrogen bond in an alkane or aromatic ring and the replacement of the hydrogen atom with another atom or group of atoms
-With light energy it enables the substitution reaction to move at a noticeable rate eg. C₃H₈ + BR₂ + light => C₃H₇Br + HBR
-Through substitution reaction, in order to name the reaction product, just indicate the location number of the replacement, followed by the halogen prefix (eg. Bromo-) and then state the type of parent chain. Also indicate the second product created from substitution reaction (hydrogen bromide) eg. propane + bromine => 1-bromopropane + hydrogen bromide
-Elimination is an organic reaction in which an alkyl halide reacts with hydroxide ion to produce an alkene by removing a hydrogen and halide ion from the molecule

  H H H             H H H
  | | |             | | | 
H-C-C-C-H + OH => H-C=C-C-H + H-O + Br
  | | |                 |       |
  H BrH                 H       H

-Alcohols have properties that can be explained by the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain

-Short-chain alcohols are very soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water molecules

-Alcohols are used as solvents in organic reactions because they are effective for both polar and non-polar compounds

-To name alcohols, the –e is dropped from the end of the alkane name and is replaced with –ol eg. Methane => methanol

-Methanol is also called wood alcohol because it was once made by heating wood shavings in the absence of air

-These days, methanol is prepared by combining carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high temperatures and pressure with the use of a catalyst

-Methanol, however, is poisonous to humans. Consuming a small amount could cause blindness or death

-When naming alcohols with more than two carbon atoms, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated

-Alcohols that contain more than one hydroxyl group are called polyalcohols, their names indicate the positions of the hydroxyl groups eg. 1,2-ethanediol

-Alcohols undergo elimination reactions to produce alkenes through being catalyzed by concentrated sulfuric acid, which removes or eliminates a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group

  H H                  H H 
  | |                  | |
H-C-C-H  + acid  =>  H-C=C-H   +   H-O
  | |                                |
  H OH                               H


ethanol + acid => ethene   + water

-Ethers is a family of organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom bonded between two hydrocarbon groups, and have the general formula R₁-O-R₂

-To name ethers add oxy to the prefix for the smaller hydrocarbon group and join it to the alkane name of the larger hydrocarbon group

eg.

CH3-O-C2H5  


methoxyethane

-Ethers have low solubility in water, low boiling points, and have no evidence of hydrogen bonding

-Ethers undergo chemical change only when treated with powerful reagents under vigorous conditions

-Ethers are formed by the condensation reaction of alcohols

-Condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, usually water

-The carbonyl functional group, -CO-, consists of a carbon atom with a double covalent bond to an oxygen atom

-Aldehydes has the carbonyl group on the terminal carbon atom of a chain

-To name aldehydes, replace the final –e of the name of the corresponding alkane with the suffix –al

-Small aldehyde molecules have sharp, irritating odors whereas larger molecules have flowery odors and is used to make perfumes

-A ketone has the carbonyl group present anywhere in a carbon chain except at the end of the chain

-The difference in position of the carbonyl group affects the chemical reactivity, and enables us to distinguish aldehydes from ketones empirically

-To name ketones, replace the –e ending of the name of the corresponding alkane with –one

-The simplest ketone is acetone (propanone), CH₃COCH₃

-The family of organic compounds, carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group, -COOH, which includes both the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups

-Carboxylic acids are found in citrus fruits, and other foods with properties of having a sour taste

-Carboxylic acids also have distinctive odors (like sweat from a person’s feet)

-The molecules of carboxylic acids are polar and form hydrogen bonds both with each other and with water molecules

-Carboxylic acids acid properties, so a litmus test can separate these compounds from other hydrocarbon derivatives

-To name carboxylic acids, replace the –e ending of the alkane name with –oic, followed by the word “acid”

-Methanoic acid, HCOOH, is the first member of the carboxylic acid family

-Some acids contain two or three carbonyl groups such as oxalic acid, and citric acid

 
    COOH  CH2-COOH
    |   |
    COOH             HO-C-COOH
   |
   CH2-COOH

     

oxalic acid      citric acid

-When carboxylic acids undergo a condensation reaction, in which a carboxylic acid combines with another reactant, it forms two products – an organic compound and water

-Esterification is the condensation reaction in which a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol to produce ester and water

-carboxylic acid + alcohol => ester + water

-The ester functional group is similar to that of an acid, except that the hydrogen atom of the carboxyl group is replaced by a hydrocarbon branch

-Esters are responsible for the odors of fruits and flowers and are also added to foods for aroma and taste

-To name an ester, determine name of the alkyl group from the alcohol used in the esterification reaction

-Next change the ending of the acid name from “–oic acid” to “–oate”

-ethanoic acid + methanol => methyl ethanoate + water

-Artificial flavorings are made by mixing synthetic esters to give similar odors of the natural substance

-An amide consists of a carboxyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom

-Amides could be formed in condensation reactions

-Amides occur in proteins, the large molecules found in all living organisms

-Peptide bonds is the joining of amino acids together in proteins

-To name amides, have the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final –e replaced by the suffix –amide

-Change the suffix of the carboxylic acid from “–oic acid” to –amide to have the same name results eg. ethanamide

-Amines consist of one or more hydrocarbon groups bonded to a nitrogen atom

-Through X-Ray diffraction reveals that the amine functional group is a nitrogen atom bonded by single covalent bonds to one, two, or three carbon atoms

-Amines are polar substances that re extremely soluble in water as they form strong hydrogen bonds both to each other and to water

-Amines have peculiar, horrible odors (eg. smell of rotting fish)

-The name of amines include the names of the alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom, followed by the suffix –amine eg. methylamine

-Amines with one, two, or three hydrocarbon groups attached to the central nitrogen atom are referred to as primary, secondary, and tertiary

-Primary amines is when a hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen atom is replaced by a hydrocarbon group

-Secondary amines are when two hydrocarbon groups replaces the hydrogen atoms and tertiary amines replaces all of the hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups

-Amines are used in the synthesis of medicines

-A group of amines found in many plants are called alkaloids

-Many alkaloids influence the function of the central nervous systems of animals

-Substitution – alkane/aromatic + halogen + light => organic halide + hydrogen halide

-Elimination – alkyl halide + OH => alkene + water |+ water + halide ion

-Elimination – alcohol + acid => alkene + water

PETROLEUM

An introduction to Petroleum

Petroleum, along with oil and coal, is classified as a fossil fuel. Fossil fuels are formed when sea plants and animals die, and the remains become buried under several thousand feet of silt, sand or mud. Fossil fuels take millions of years to form and therefore petroleum is also considered to be a non-renewable energy source.

Petroleum is formed by hydrocarbons (a hydrocarbon is a compound made up of carbon and hydrogen) with the addition of certain other substances, primarily sulphur. Petroleum in its natural form when first collected is usually named crude oil, and can be clear, green or black and may be either thin like gasoline or thick like tar.

There are several major oil producing regions around the globe. The Kuwait and Saudi Arabia's crude oil fields are the largest, although Middle East oil from other countries in the region such as Iran and Iraq also make up a significant part of world production figures.

The North Sea crude oil fields are still fairly full, and are arguably the second most influential oil field in economic terms. Texas, once the world's major oil region, is now almost completely dry.

In 1859 Edwin Drake sank the first known oil well, this was in Pennsylvania. Since this time oil and petroleum production figure grew exponentially.

Originally the primary use of petroleum was as a lighting fuel, once it had been distilled and turned into kerosene. When Edison opened the world's first electricity generating plant in 1882 the demand for kerosene began to drop.

However, by this time Henry Ford had shown the world that the automobile would be the best form of transport for decades to come, and gasoline began to be a product in high demand.

World War I was the real catalyst for petroleum production, with more petroleum being produced throughout the war than had ever been produced previously. In modern times petroleum is viewed as a valuable commodity, traded around the world in the same way as gold and diamonds.

Most people tend to believe that petroleum is mostly used to power internal combustion engines in the form of gasoline or petrol. Although our autombiles and other forms of transport do consume the highest quantity of petroleum it is used for a vast array of applications.

In its thickest form, the almost black petroleum is named bitumen, this is used for paving road, forming the blacktop, it is also an excellent water repellent and is used in roofing.

Petroleum is also a major part of the chemical makeup of many plastics and synthetics. Possibly the most startling usage of petroleum for many people is its appearance in foodstuffs such as beer and in medications such as aspirin.

The world has a limited supply of petroleum, and current estimations tell us that within the next few decades mankind will have completely depleted this valuable natural resource. Although measures have been taken to ensure that there are cheap, renewable fuel options in place for the eventuality it is still obvious that mankind faces a serious problem when petroleum supplies finally run out.

Another crucial point with petroleum, is the price it plays with regards to travel costs. Most travel companies whose main line of business concentrates on cheap travel and cheap holidays could be threatened in the future if petroleum supplies are completed depleted.

The future is not as bleak as it may sound though, many companies are already preparing themselves for the widespread usage of biofuels, which experts are prediciting are less than 10 years away from main stream use. It is interesting to note that from the wikipedia page which explains about biofuel, is that it is a renewable source of fuel, so it would be impossible to ever run out of biofuels.